TESTICULAR CANCER

What is Testicular Cancer?

Testicular cancer is cancer in one or both testicles. The testicles are two organs contained in a sac of skin called the scrotum, which hangs beneath the base of the penis. The testicles produce and store sperm and are the main source of male hormones.

Testicular cancer usually occurs in young men. This type of cancer can be treated and very often cured.

Types of Testicular Cancer

The testicles have several kinds of cells. The different cells may develop into one or more types of cancer. These types of cancer are treated differently. They also differ in the chance of survival for the patient (prognosis). Below is an explanation of the three main types of testicular cancer.

Germ cell tumors: This is the most common type of testicular cancer. Germ cell tumors grow in the cells that make sperm. More than nine out of 10 of cancers of the testicles start in the germ cells. As used here, "germ" means seed. These are the cells that make sperm.

The two main types of germ cell tumors are seminomas and nonseminomas. Seminomas start from the sperm-producing germ cells of the testicle. Within this group there are also subtypes. Seminomas usually happen in men when they are between their late 30s and early 50s.

Nonseminomas tend to develop earlier in life than seminomas. They are often found in men between their late teens and early 40s. There are 4 main subtypes. Most tumors are mixed, having at least 2 different types. But all nonseminoma germ cell cancers are treated the same way, so the exact type is not that important.

Stromal tumors: These tumors grow in other parts of the testicles, such as the cells that make hormones. Tumors can also grow in the cells that make hormones and in the supportive tissues, or stroma, of the testicles. Stromal cell tumors are often benign (not cancer). They usually do not spread beyond the testicle and can be cured by surgical removal. But a few stromal cell tumors spread to other parts of the body (metastasize). Metastatic stromal cell tumors have a poor outlook because they do not respond well to chemotherapy or radiation therapy. The 2 main types of stromal tumors are Leydig cell tumors and Sertoli cell tumors.

Secondary testicular tumors: These tumors develop from cancer that has spread to the testicles from other parts of the body. Secondary testicular tumors start in another organ and then spread to the testicle. Lymphoma is the most common cancer of this type. Among men over age 50, testicular lymphoma is more common than tumors that start in the testicle. Their outlook depends on the type and stage of lymphoma. In children with acute leukemia, the leukemia cells can sometimes form a tumor in the testicle.

Cancers of the prostate, lung, skin, kidney, and other organs can also spread to the testicles. The outlook for these cancers is usually poor. That's because these cancers have generally spread widely to other organs as well. Treatment depends on the exact type of cancer.

Statistics

In 2005, approximately 8,010 males were estimated to be diagnosed with testicular cancer and 390 males were estimated to die from the disease.

When found early, testicular cancer is one of the most treatable forms of cancer, with an overall cure rate above 90 percent.

Testicular cancer incidence has more than doubled among white Americans in the past four decades.

Prevention

Cryptorchidism (undescended testicle), white race, and a family history of the disease are the main known risk factors of this cancer. None of these factors can be prevented because they are present at birth.

It is wise to correct cryptorchidism in boys. And knowing he has a risk factor for testicular cancer may cause a young man to be more watchful and to check his testicles, making it more likely a cancer will be found early.

Risks

All males are at risk of testicular cancer, regardless of age. However, some individuals are at greater risk for developing the disease. The main risk factor for the development of testicular cancer is cryptorchidism — undescended testicle(s).

Normally, the testicles descend into the scrotum before birth. However, in some cases, a testicle will remain in the abdomen area or partially descend before it becomes stuck in the groin area. About 14 percent of testicular cancer cases occur in men with a history of cryptorchidism. The risk remains even after surgery to correct undescended testicles. Research is underway to help explain this phenomenon.

In addition to having undescended testicles, you are also at greater risk if you:

Have a family history of testicular cancer

Have a personal history of testicular cancer: Men who have had cancer in one testicle are at increased risk for developing cancer in the other

• Are a white, American male: The risk of testicular cancer among white American men is five times higher than that of African-American men.
• Are between the ages of 15 and 40: However, males at any age can develop this disease.
• Have certain types of moles: Recent studies have shown that an unusual condition that causes many spots or moles is linked to an increased risk of testicular cancer. The moles are found on the back, chest, belly and face

Symptoms

Men who have testicular cancer may have the following symptoms:

• A lump on either testicle (The lump is often painless, but it can be uncomfortable.)
• Enlargement of either testicle
• Heaviness or aching in the lower abdomen or scrotum
• Pain or discomfort in a testicle or in the scrotum
• A collection of fluid in the scrotum
• Breast growth or breast tenderness
• Loss of sex drive
• Regardless of your age, if any of these symptoms last for more than two weeks, schedule an appointment with your health care provider immediately.

Early Detection

By practicing early detection, men can increase their chance of discovering testicular cancer in its earliest, most treatable stages. Your health care professional should perform an examination of your testicles during your yearly physical. And most health care professionals agree that self-examination is helpful and should be performed monthly after puberty.

Testicular self-exam (TSE): Once a month perform this self-exam during or after a bath or shower when the skin is relaxed. It is important for men to become familiar with their testicles and understand what feels normal so they can recognize a change that may signal a problem.

Stand in front of a mirror. Hold the penis away and look at each testicle separately. Look for any signs of swelling on the scrotal skin. It is normal for one testicle to be larger than the other.

Examine each testicle individually using both hands. Place your thumbs on top of the testicle, and your index and middle finders under the testicle.

Gently roll the testicle between the thumbs and fingers to feel for the epididymis, a soft tube-like structure that stores and carries sperm. Finding this is important so you will not mistake it for an abnormal lump.

Continue to feel for any abnormal hard lumps or smooth rounded masses on the testicle, particularly along the sides.

If you find a lump or change in the size, shape or consistency of the testicle, contact your health care professional immediately to determine whether or not it is testicular cancer.

Treatment

Surgery is the primary treatment for testicular cancer. The extent of surgery depends on the stage of the disease and the cell type, either seminoma or a nonseminoma. Testicular cancer is staged from Stage 0 (the cancer is found only in the tiny tubes that produce sperm) all the way to Stage III (the cancer may have spread beyond the testicle to nearby or far away lymph nodes or to other organs of the body, such as the lungs). The testicle or testicles with cancer are removed from the scrotum through a cut in the groin (radical inguinal orchiectomy). Sometimes lymph nodes from behind the abdomen are also removed (retroperitoneal lymph node dissection). Nerve sparing surgery to preserve a man's ability to father children is performed when possible in younger men.

Radiation to lymph nodes in the abdomen and pelvis may follow surgery. Sometimes in cases in which the tumor is larger, surgery to remove the testicle is followed by combination chemotherapy or radiation therapy to lymph nodes in the abdomen and pelvis. In other cases, a second surgery is performed to be certain no cancer remains.

SKIN CANCER

What is Skin Cancer?

Skin cancer develops when abnormal skin cells, which often form a group called a tumor, begin to grow out of control and invade other parts of the body – a process called metastasis. Benign tumors do not spread and are usually not harmful. Malignant tumors, however, spread from their sources and can grow into life-threatening cancers.

Types of Skin Cancer

Because they develop differently and carry different risks, skin cancer (also called carcinomas) can be separated into two groups: melanoma and nonmelanoma cancers.

Melanomas, which account for about 4 percent of skin cancers, start in the pigment-producing cells that are in the skin's outer layer (the epidermis). They are usually brown or black mole-like growths. When identified early, melanomas can be successfully removed most of the time. If neglected, however, melanomas are likely to metastasize and can be deadly. Although melanomas are the least common, they are the most dangerous skin cancers.

Non-melanoma skin cancers, mostly flesh-colored to reddish-brown nodules, primarily involve two types of cells: basal cells (lower epidermis) and squamous cells (upper epidermis). About 75 percent of skin cancers are basal cell carcinomas, which are sun-induced, slow-growing and unlikely to metastasize. Squamous cell carcinomas are also caused by sun exposure and account for about 20 percent of skin cancers.

The development of squamous cell carcinomas around the anus and genital area has been associated with Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) , a sexually transmitted disease. Condoms do not provide adequate protection from HPV, the virus that causes genital warts.

Although melanomas cause the most deaths, other types of skin cancers can also be fatal. The best way to start protecting yourself against all skin cancers is learning how to examine your body for suspicious skin changes that signal precancerous growths.

Skin cancer might seem like a disease that only affects the elderly, but since young people are spending so much time in the sun and in tanning beds, more young adults are developing skin cancer than ever before. You might consider skin cancer a distant threat, but you may see the effects of today's sun damage sooner you think.

Statistics

Skin cancer rates are on the rise – more than 1 million Americans were diagnosed with non-melanomas in 2005, and about 59,580 were estimated to be diagnosed with melanoma.

It was estimated that 10,250 people would die from skin cancer in 2005 –approximately 7,770 from melanoma and 2,820 from other skin cancers.

Since 1981, the rate of incidence has slowed to a little less than 3 percent per year.

Melanoma risk is more than 10 times higher for whites than African-Americans.

Approximately 50 percent of all melanomas occur in people over the age of fifty (that means that half occur in youth and middle age).

Men are twice as likely to develop basal cell carcinomas and are three times as likely to have squamous cell carcinomas.

Prevention

There is a lot that you can do to protect your skin from the sun. Most skin cancers are caused by too much exposure to the sun's ultraviolet rays, but some may come from artificial sources, such as tanning beds. Some prevention tips are:

Avoid sun exposure from 10 am to 4 pm. During the middle of the day, the sun's UV rays are most intense. Try to minimize your midday sun exposure.

Always wear a waterproof, broadband sunscreen of SPF 15 or higher. Sunscreen offers some protection against the sun's harmful rays. If applied correctly, a sun-protection factor (SPF) of 15 or higher should allow you to stay in the sun 15 times longer than you would normally be able to without burning. Sunscreen does not block all of the sun's radiation, however, and most people do not use sunscreen appropriately. One mistake people make is having a false sense of "sun-invincibility." Wearing sunscreen helps protect against sun damage, but it does not give you a license to spend unlimited time in the sun. Some other common missteps include not using enough sunscreen, not using a waterproof formula, not reapplying frequently enough and not using broadband protection. To block more of the sun's rays, your sunscreen should include broadband protection. Broadband is a term that sunscreen manufacturers use to describe a product that offers protection from both UVA and UVB radiation emitted by the sun.

To completely cover your body, slather on one ounce of sunscreen. If you're hitting the beach or lying out by the pool, you should apply about an ounce — the amount of a full shot glass--of sunscreen to all exposed skin.

Apply sunscreen at least 20 minutes before going out in the sun. Since sunscreen takes at least 20 minutes to absorb into the skin, apply it prior to going outside to give it time to work.

Wear sunscreen everyday, even overcast, cloudy days. When you're outside during daylight hours, UV rays can damage skin regardless of season, location or weather. In the United States , exposure to sunlight is almost as intense in April as it is in August. Year-round protection is important whether you're headed to the pool or the ski slopes since surfaces such as water, snow and sand can reflect up to 85 percent of the sun's rays.

Protect your eyes and lips. Facial features, especially eyes and lips, are susceptible sites for skin cancer. To protect your eyes, wear sunglasses treated to absorb UV radiation and make sure they cover the area surrounding your eyes. For lips, use a lip balm that has an SPF of at least 15.

Wear clothing with a tight weave and a wide-brimmed hat. Clothes block the sun's rays even better than commercial sunscreen products do. Dark, tightly woven fabrics offer the better sun protection than light, thin and loosely woven materials do. A wide-brimmed hat provides good coverage for your face, ears, neck and scalp. Although a cap is better than no hat at all, it doesn't shade your ears and neck.

If you have children, teach them to apply their own sunscreen (under your supervision).

Teach your children that, by using sunscreen, they can be cancer-fighters. Remember that all of the prevention tips offered here not only apply to adults, but also apply to children.

Keep babies less than six months old out of the sun. Experts dissuade against using sunscreen on infants, who may react negatively to the chemicals. Instead of using sunscreen on infants, cover them well-using a hat or bonnet and sunglasses--if they must be in the sun.

Encourage your kids to play in the shade. When you take your kids to playgrounds, look for areas that include shade trees or covered areas so they can take a break from being in the sun.

Risks

While everyone should practice sun safety, certain people are at greater risk for developing skin cancer. Risk factors include:

• Light hair color and blue, gray or green eyes.
• Fair complexion and/or freckle.
• Sun sensitivity: Skin that burns easily.
• Taking prescription medications that increase sun sensitivity.
• Family history: Approximately 10 percent of people with melanoma have a close relative with skin cancer.
• Several moles on your body : People with lots of moles, and those who have some large moles, have an increased risk for melanoma.
• Presence of a congenital mole : Having a mole since birth increases your risk.
• One or more large or irregularly pigmented lesions.
• Suppressed immune system : People who have been treated with medicines that suppress the immune system, such as transplant patients.
• Exposure to certain chemicals, such as arsenic, and to radiation therapy.
• Excessive exposure to the sun and repeated blistering sunburns before the age of 15.
• A person who has already had melanoma has a higher risk of getting another melanoma.

Symptoms

Once a month, give yourself a skin exam or ask your partner to examine your skin. If you are doing this yourself, use a hand mirror and a full-length mirror to look for the following signs and changes:

• A brown or black irregularly pigmented spot with uneven margins.
• A slow-growing, raised, translucent, pearly nodule that may crust, ulcerate and possibly bleed without treatment. These are typically found on the face, neck, hands and trunk.
• A change in sensation, itchiness, tenderness or pain from a mole.
• A small, smooth, shiny, pale or waxy lump on the skin.
• A flat red spot, either scaly and crusty or smooth and shiny.
• A new mole.

If you see anything new or different, contact your health care professional. The ABCD rule can help you distinguish something that may be suspicious:

Asymmetry: half of the mole does not match the other half.

Border irregularity: edges of the mole are ragged.

Color: that is not uniform. There may be shades of tan, brown, or black, and sometimes patches of red, blue, or white.

Diameter: greater than 6 millimeters.

If you have children, examine their skin regularly, too. It is possible for children to develop skin cancer just like adults, and it's never too early to start forming good habits.

Early Detection

Two early detection tools should be used together to help detect an early skin cancer.

Self-examination: Once a month, give yourself a skin exam or ask your partner to examine your skin. Learn the pattern of moles and blemishes so that you will know if something is difference. If you are doing this yourself, examine your skin in a well lighted room and use a hand mirror and a full-length mirror to look at your face, scalp, ears, neck, chest, belly, arm, hands, legs and feet for the following signs and changes:

• A brown or black irregularly pigmented spot with uneven margins.
• A slow-growing, raised, translucent, pearly nodule that may crust, ulcerate and possibly bleed without treatment. These are typically found on the face, neck, hands and trunk.
• A change in sensation, itchiness, tenderness or pain from a mole.
• A small, smooth, shiny, pale or waxy lump on the skin.
• A flat red spot, either scaly and crusty or smooth and shiny.
• A new mole.

Remember the ABCD rule: asymmetry, border irregularity, color that is not uniform and a diameter greater than 6 millimeters – about the size of the tip of a pencil eraser.

If you discover a suspicious growth while conducting your monthly self-examination, however, get a clinician to inspect the area as soon as possible. Early detection can allow you to catch abnormal skin growths before they have a chance to spread.

If you have children, examine their skin regularly, too. It is possible for children to develop skin cancer just like adults, and it's never too early to start forming good habits.

Clinical examination: You should also have clinical skin cancer check-ups during routine physical examinations by a health care professional. Skin cancer is treatable if it is detected early.

Treatment

Treatment for skin depends on the cancer type and stage of the cancer — whether it is confined to the skin or has spread to other parts of the body. Non-melanoma skin cancers, basal cell and squamous cell carcinoma, are usually treated by surgical removal of the tissue. These procedures may include Mohs micrographic surgery, in which the tumor is cut from the skin in layers until no more cancer is seen. Or it may be removed through a simple excision that cuts the tumor from the skin, or a shave excision that shaves the tumor off the surface of the skin until normal tissue appears. Electrodesiccation and currettage is a method that uses a needle shaped electrode to treat the area with an electric current that kill the cells.

Cryosurgery uses cold gases to freeze and destroy tissue and laser surgery used a narrow beam of intense light to cut and remove the tumor. Chemotherapy is sometimes used to treat non-melanoma skin cancers and is given orally or applied topically to the skin. Photodynamic therapy combines a light sensitive drug that mark the spot where cancer cells are so they can then be destroyed by laser light.

Melanoma is staged from Stage 0 or in situ, in which the cancer has not spread beyond the epidermis layer of skin, through to Stage IV, in which the cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes and or other places in the body.

Surgery is used to remove the tumor and is the primary treatment. Sometimes nearby lymph nodes are also removed to determine if the cancer has spread.

Skin grafts may be needed in which skin is taken from other parts of the body to cover the wound. Chemotherapy may follow surgery either through the mouth, by injections into muscle or through the vein if the cancer has spread beyond the skin. Sometimes chemotherapy drugs may be given as a hyperthermic isolated limb perfusion, a technique that injects high doses of anti-cancer drugs directly into the affected arm or leg. Some patients receive radiation therapy following surgery for melanoma.

Ovarian Cancer

What is Ovarian Cancer?

Ovarian cancer begins in a woman's ovaries. Women have two ovaries, one on each side of the pelvis. The ovaries produce eggs. They are also the main source of the female hormones estrogen and progesterone.

Many types of tumors can start in the ovaries. Some are benign (non-cancerous) and never spread beyond the ovary. Women with these types of tumors can be successfully treated by removing one ovary or the part of the ovary that has the tumor. Other types of tumors are malignant (cancerous) and can spread to other parts of the body.

Types of Ovarian Cancer

As a rule, tumors in the ovary are named for the type of cell from which they were initiated and whether the tumor is benign or malignant. There are three main types of tumors:

Germ cell tumors start from the cells that produce the eggs (ova). About one in 20 ovarian cancers are germ cell tumors. Germ cells are those that form the eggs. Most germ cell tumors are not cancer, although some can be. There are several sub-types of germ cell tumors. Most are benign but some are cancerous.

Stromal tumors start from connective tissue cells that hold the ovary together and produce the female hormones. Stromal tumors can be either benign (non-cancerous) or cancerous. More than half are found in women over age 50.

Epithelial tumors start from the cells that cover the outer surface of the ovary. Epithelial ovarian tumors can be further divided into three sub-groups: Benign epithelial tumors do not spread and usually do not lead to serious illness. Tumors of low malignant potential (LMP tumors) do not appear to be clearly cancerous. They are also known as borderline tumors. These tumors affect women at a younger age than other ovarian cancers. They grow slowly and are much less serious than most ovarian cancers. Epithelial ovarian cancers, which account for nearly nine out of 10 ovarian cancers. Cancer cells of this type of tumor have certain features that can be seen under a microscope and that allow doctors to further classify them. These kinds of tumors are also given a grade depending on how closely the cells look like normal cells. Grade 1 means the cells look more normal; grade 3 look less normal, and grade 2 is in between.

Primary peritoneal carcinoma is a cancer much like epithelial ovarian cancer but it starts outside of the ovaries. It grows from the cells that line the pelvis or abdomen. These cells look like the cells along the surface of the ovaries. Women who have had their ovaries removed can still get this type of cancer. Symptoms of this cancer are much like those of ovarian cancer. Treatment is also similar.

An ovarian cyst is fluid that collects inside an ovary. Many of these cysts are normal. The fluid will most often be absorbed and the cyst will go away in time without any treatment. But if the cyst is large or happens in childhood or after menopause, the doctor may suggest further tests or treatment.

Statistics

Ovarian cancer is the second most common ‘reproductive' cancer, but it kills more women than any other reproductive cancer.

Women younger than 65 are twice as likely to survive the cancer.

When detected early the 5 year survival rate is 94 percent, 50 percent higher than the overall survival rate.

Prevention

Most women have one of more risk factors for ovarian cancer, but most of the common factors only slightly increase a person's risk. There are things that a woman can do to reduce her risk of ovarian cancer.

Oral contraceptives: The use of oral contraceptives decreases the risk of developing ovarian cancer, especially among women who use them for several years.

Tubal ligation or hysterectomy: Tubal ligation is a surgical procedure to “tie” the fallopian tubes to prevent pregnancy. When performed after childbearing, tubal ligation may reduce the chance of developing ovarian cancer by up to 67 percent.

Pregnancy and breast-feeding: Having one of more children with prolonged breast-feeding, may decrease a woman's risk for ovarian cancer.

Diet: A number of studies have shown a reduced rate of ovarian cancer in women who ate a diet high in vegetables.

Risks

Some of the risk factors for the most common (epithelial) type of ovarian cancer are:

Age: Most ovarian cancers happen after menopause. Half of all these cancers are found in women over the age of 65 and the risk peaks in the late 70's.

Women who have never had children are more likely to develop ovarian cancer than those who have had children. Pregnancy, tubal ligation and the use of oral contraceptives appear to reduce the risk of developing ovarian cancer.

Fertility drugs and hormone replacement therapy: Long term use of these drugs increases the risk.

Family history: Ovarian cancer risk is higher among women whose close blood relatives (mother, sister, daughter) have (or had) this disease. The relatives can be from either the mother's or father's side of the family. There is a higher risk if family members were diagnosed with ovarian cancer at an early age.

Breast cancer: Women who have had breast cancer also have a higher risk of ovarian cancer. Recent studies suggested that preventive surgery to remove the ovaries and fallopian tubes can decrease the risk of ovarian cancers and other gynecologic cancers in women with BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations. Another genetic syndrome, hereditary non-polyposis colon cancer (HNPCC), has also been associated with endometrial and ovarian cancer. Incidence rates are highest in industrialized countries other than Japan.

Obesity: Some research indicates that women who were overweight have a higher rate of death from ovarian cancer in. The risk increased by 50 percent in the heaviest women.

Symptoms

• Unusual vaginal bleeding
• Pelvic pressure
• Back or leg pain
• Unexpected weight loss or gain
• Constipation
• Sense of fullness or pressure in the pelvis
• Abdominal bloating or swelling
• Changes in bowel and bladder patterns
• Indigestion or gas
• Frequency or urgency of urination

Early Detection

There is yet no easy, non-invasive tool for diagnosing ovarian cancer. Today, periodic thorough pelvic exams are important to help detect changes in the size or shape of the ovaries and uterus for women at average risk.

For women at higher risk for ovarian cancer, transvaginal ultrasound may be useful. This type of ultrasound uses a small instrument inserted into the vagina that creates sound waves to create images of the ovaries.

A blood test that checks for abnormal levels of a certain protein, CA125, may help in diagnosis and detection for women at high risk. Research is ongoing into improved imaging technology and specific patterns of proteins in the blood that may result in the development of more sensitive screening tests in the future.

Ovarian Cancer

What is Ovarian Cancer?

Ovarian cancer begins in a woman's ovaries. Women have two ovaries, one on each side of the pelvis. The ovaries produce eggs. They are also the main source of the female hormones estrogen and progesterone.

Many types of tumors can start in the ovaries. Some are benign (non-cancerous) and never spread beyond the ovary. Women with these types of tumors can be successfully treated by removing one ovary or the part of the ovary that has the tumor. Other types of tumors are malignant (cancerous) and can spread to other parts of the body.

Types of Ovarian Cancer

As a rule, tumors in the ovary are named for the type of cell from which they were initiated and whether the tumor is benign or malignant. There are three main types of tumors:

Germ cell tumors start from the cells that produce the eggs (ova). About one in 20 ovarian cancers are germ cell tumors. Germ cells are those that form the eggs. Most germ cell tumors are not cancer, although some can be. There are several sub-types of germ cell tumors. Most are benign but some are cancerous.

Stromal tumors start from connective tissue cells that hold the ovary together and produce the female hormones. Stromal tumors can be either benign (non-cancerous) or cancerous. More than half are found in women over age 50.

Epithelial tumors start from the cells that cover the outer surface of the ovary. Epithelial ovarian tumors can be further divided into three sub-groups: Benign epithelial tumors do not spread and usually do not lead to serious illness. Tumors of low malignant potential (LMP tumors) do not appear to be clearly cancerous. They are also known as borderline tumors. These tumors affect women at a younger age than other ovarian cancers. They grow slowly and are much less serious than most ovarian cancers. Epithelial ovarian cancers, which account for nearly nine out of 10 ovarian cancers. Cancer cells of this type of tumor have certain features that can be seen under a microscope and that allow doctors to further classify them. These kinds of tumors are also given a grade depending on how closely the cells look like normal cells. Grade 1 means the cells look more normal; grade 3 look less normal, and grade 2 is in between.

Primary peritoneal carcinoma is a cancer much like epithelial ovarian cancer but it starts outside of the ovaries. It grows from the cells that line the pelvis or abdomen. These cells look like the cells along the surface of the ovaries. Women who have had their ovaries removed can still get this type of cancer. Symptoms of this cancer are much like those of ovarian cancer. Treatment is also similar.

An ovarian cyst is fluid that collects inside an ovary. Many of these cysts are normal. The fluid will most often be absorbed and the cyst will go away in time without any treatment. But if the cyst is large or happens in childhood or after menopause, the doctor may suggest further tests or treatment.

Statistics

Ovarian cancer is the second most common ‘reproductive' cancer, but it kills more women than any other reproductive cancer.

Women younger than 65 are twice as likely to survive the cancer.

When detected early the 5 year survival rate is 94 percent, 50 percent higher than the overall survival rate.

Prevention

Most women have one of more risk factors for ovarian cancer, but most of the common factors only slightly increase a person's risk. There are things that a woman can do to reduce her risk of ovarian cancer.

Oral contraceptives: The use of oral contraceptives decreases the risk of developing ovarian cancer, especially among women who use them for several years.

Tubal ligation or hysterectomy: Tubal ligation is a surgical procedure to “tie” the fallopian tubes to prevent pregnancy. When performed after childbearing, tubal ligation may reduce the chance of developing ovarian cancer by up to 67 percent.

Pregnancy and breast-feeding: Having one of more children with prolonged breast-feeding, may decrease a woman's risk for ovarian cancer.

Diet: A number of studies have shown a reduced rate of ovarian cancer in women who ate a diet high in vegetables.

Risks

Some of the risk factors for the most common (epithelial) type of ovarian cancer are:

Age: Most ovarian cancers happen after menopause. Half of all these cancers are found in women over the age of 65 and the risk peaks in the late 70's.

Women who have never had children are more likely to develop ovarian cancer than those who have had children. Pregnancy, tubal ligation and the use of oral contraceptives appear to reduce the risk of developing ovarian cancer.

Fertility drugs and hormone replacement therapy: Long term use of these drugs increases the risk.

Family history: Ovarian cancer risk is higher among women whose close blood relatives (mother, sister, daughter) have (or had) this disease. The relatives can be from either the mother's or father's side of the family. There is a higher risk if family members were diagnosed with ovarian cancer at an early age.

Breast cancer: Women who have had breast cancer also have a higher risk of ovarian cancer. Recent studies suggested that preventive surgery to remove the ovaries and fallopian tubes can decrease the risk of ovarian cancers and other gynecologic cancers in women with BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations. Another genetic syndrome, hereditary non-polyposis colon cancer (HNPCC), has also been associated with endometrial and ovarian cancer. Incidence rates are highest in industrialized countries other than Japan.

Obesity: Some research indicates that women who were overweight have a higher rate of death from ovarian cancer in. The risk increased by 50 percent in the heaviest women.

Symptoms

• Unusual vaginal bleeding
• Pelvic pressure
• Back or leg pain
• Unexpected weight loss or gain
• Constipation
• Sense of fullness or pressure in the pelvis
• Abdominal bloating or swelling
• Changes in bowel and bladder patterns
• Indigestion or gas
• Frequency or urgency of urination

Early Detection

There is yet no easy, non-invasive tool for diagnosing ovarian cancer. Today, periodic thorough pelvic exams are important to help detect changes in the size or shape of the ovaries and uterus for women at average risk.

For women at higher risk for ovarian cancer, transvaginal ultrasound may be useful. This type of ultrasound uses a small instrument inserted into the vagina that creates sound waves to create images of the ovaries.

A blood test that checks for abnormal levels of a certain protein, CA125, may help in diagnosis and detection for women at high risk. Research is ongoing into improved imaging technology and specific patterns of proteins in the blood that may result in the development of more sensitive screening tests in the future.

PROSTATE CANCER

What is Prostate Cancer?

The prostate is a gland, about the size of a walnut, found only in men. It is located just below the bladder and in front of the rectum. The tube that carries urine, the urethra, runs through the prostate. The prostate contains cells that make some of the seminal fluid, which protects and nourishes the sperm.

Most of the time, prostate cancer grows slowly. Autopsy studies show that many older men who died of other diseases also had prostate cancer that neither they nor their doctor were aware of. But sometimes prostate cancer can grow and spread quickly. Even with the latest methods, it is hard to tell which prostate cancers will grow slowly and which will grow quickly.

Some doctors believe that prostate cancer begins with very small changes in the size and shape of the prostate gland cells. These changes, known as PIN (prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia), can be either low-grade (almost normal) or high-grade (abnormal). If a patient had a prostate biopsy that showed high-grade PIN, there is a greater chance of cancer cells in the prostate. For this reason, he will be watched carefully and may need another biopsy.

Types of Prostate Cancer

Although there are several cell types in the prostate, nearly all prostate cancers start in the gland cells. This kind of cancer is known as adenocarcinoma.

Statistics

African-American men have the highest prostate cancer incidence rates in the world and will account for a high proportion of new cases.

African-American men are nearly twice as likely to get prostate cancer as white men.

About 85 percent of newly diagnosed prostate tumors are discovered in local and regional stages, meaning the tumor has not spread beyond the prostate.

When the cancer is confined to the prostate, the five-year survival rate is 100 percent.

Prevention

By having a healthy lifestyle and talking to your health care professional about screening, especially if you are at high risk, you may greatly reduce your risk of prostate cancer.

To help protect yourself against prostate cancer, try the following tips:

Eat a low-fat diet high in fruits and vegetables. Studies suggest that dietary fat may be linked to prostate cancer. There is preliminary evidence that suggests some chemoprotectives found in foods may help reduce risk for prostate cancer. For example, lycopene , the ingredient found in tomatoes and processed tomato products that gives them their red color, may have cancer-fighting properties. Bread, cereals, grain products, rice, pasta, and beans are also recommended. These guidelines on nutrition may also lower the risk for some other types of cancer, as well as other health problems.

Exercise regularly. It may help reduce several types of cancer and help you maintain your weight, increase energy, flexibility and strength, as well as contribute to your overall mental well being.

Risks

While 75 percent of all prostate cancer cases are diagnosed in men over the age of 65, some young men are at an increased risk for prostate cancer. You are at greater risk if you:

Have a strong family history of the disease, such as two or more affected first-degree relatives, e.g., father, brother

Are an African-American man. African-American men are twice as likely to die of the disease. Prostate cancer occurs less often in Asian men than in whites.

Consume a diet high in fat, red meat and low in fruits and vegetables: Try to eat five or more servings of vegetables and fruits each day and eat less red meat and high-fat dairy products.

Symptoms

In the early stages of prostate cancer, when a tumor is small and contained in the prostate, there are usually no symptoms.

However, the symptoms below are associated with prostate cancer, and are often misinterpreted as benign conditions. When a prostate tumor grows, it can press on the urethra and cause one or more of the following problems:

• Frequent urination, especially at night
• Trouble starting or stopping urine flow
• Weak or interrupted urine flow
• Inability to urinate
• Pain or burning sensation while urinating
• Blood in the urine
• Constant pain in lower back, pelvis or upper thighs
• Trouble having or keeping an erection

Regardless of your age, if any of these symptoms last for more than two weeks, schedule an appointment with your health care professional immediately.

Early Detection

Early detection is the key to reducing your risk of advanced prostate cancer and for diagnosis of an early stage when there is a good chance for successful treatment. If you are at an increased risk for prostate cancer, talk to you health care professional about when you should begin screening. For men at average risk, these routine screening exams should be performed:

Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA): An annual PSA blood test is recommended beginning at age 50. Men at high risk (African-Americans and men with a strong family history of prostate cancer) may need to begin screening at an earlier age. The PSA test measures a protein that is made by prostate cells. High PSA levels are associated with the presence of prostate cancer. The test alone, however, does not definitively diagnose prostate cancer. Conditions such as non-cancerous prostate enlargement and inflammation of the prostate (prostatitis) can cause a borderline or high PSA test result in men who do not have prostate cancer.

Digital Rectal Examination (DRE) : A DRE should be offered annually to men beginning at age 50. Most prostate cancers begin in the posterior part of the gland that can be reached by a digital rectal examination. During a DRE, a physician inserts a gloved, lubricated finger into the rectum to feel for any irregular or abnormally firm area that may be cancer. A DRE should be performed by a health care professional skilled in recognizing subtle prostate abnormalities. If an abnormal finding is detected during the DRE, a transrectal ultrasound will likely be recommended for a more detailed diagnosis.

Transrectal Ultrasound (TRUS): Transrectal ultrasound uses sound waves released from a small probe placed in the rectum to create an image of the prostate on a TV screen. It is often used in conjunction with a biopsy to help guide a needle into the exact area of the prostate where a tissue sample will be taken for examination under a microscope.

Treatment

After diagnosis, tests will be completed to determine if the cancer has spread beyond the prostate to other parts of the body. There are a number of tests that help to stage the disease — prostate cancers are classified from Stage 1, in which the cancer is confined to the prostate, through Stage IV, in which the cancer has spread (metastasized to lymph nodes or to other organs such as the bladder, rectum, bones, liver or lungs).

Very early cancer may never be treated. Clinicians may take a watchful waiting approach because the cancer grows so slowly. Most often surgery is performed. A prostatectomy removes the entire prostate gland and some tissue around the gland. Lymph nodes around the prostate may also be removed for study under a microscope. Sometimes the surgeon does not remove lymph nodes, if the chance for spreading is considered low. When possible, surgeon will try to spare the nerves surrounding the prostate since these control erection.

Laparoscopic radical prostateomy is being used more often; it is less invasive and involves small cuts rather than a long surgical incision.

Radiation therapy is used to kill cancer cells in cases in which the disease has not spread. This might be either external beam radiation, the use of x-rays aimed outside the body, or brachytherapy, in which radioactive materials are injected into the body. Cryosurgery is sometimes used to treat the cancer by freezing cells. Cold gases are inserted into probes placed into incisions between the anus and scrotum.

Hormone therapy lowers levels of the male hormones, such as testosterone, which help prostate cells grow.

It is used when other treatments are inappropriate or in addition to surgery in men at high-risk for recurrence of disease. Hormone therapy is not a cure for prostate cancer. Orchiectomy is surgery to remove the testicles, which are the main source of male hormones.

Chemotherapy is given in cases in which the cancer has spread outside the prostate gland and hormone therapy isn't effective. It can relieve pain and slow the growth of the tumor, but isn't not a treatment for early prostate cancer.

LUNG CANCER

What is Lung Cancer?

Most lung cancer is caused by tobacco use. Lung cancer accounts for the most cancer-related deaths in both men and women. An estimated 231,380 new cases are expected in 2007.

Lung cancer often takes many years to develop. First, there may be areas of pre-cancerous changes in the lung. These changes are not masses or tumors. They can't be seen on an X-ray and they don't cause symptoms. As these pre-cancerous areas change and mutate to become cancer, they create chemicals that cause new blood vessels to form nearby. These new blood vessels nourish the cancer cells and allow a tumor to form. Finally, the tumor becomes large enough to be seen on an X-ray.

Once lung cancer occurs, cancer cells can break away and spread to other parts of the body in a process called metastasis. Lung cancer is a life-threatening disease because it often spreads in this way before it is found.

Types of Lung Cancer

There are different types of lung cancers that are characterized by the cells that make up the tumors. One quarter of all lung cancers are called small-cell lung cancers. This type of lung cancer grows the fastest and quickly spreads to other organs.

Non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the most common type of lung cancer. There are three kinds of NSCLC:

Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common type of lung cancer in men. It spreads at a slower rate than other lung cancers, and often begins in the bronchial tubes.

Adenocarcinoma is the most common type of lung cancer in women and in people who have never smoked. It usually begins along the outer edges of the lungs, under the lining of the bronchi.

Large cell carcinomas are a group of cancer with large abnormal looking cells. These tumors usually begin along the outer edges of the lung.

Statistics

About 213,380 Americans are estimated to be diagnosed with lung cancer in 2007.

Lung cancer is the number-one cancer-killer in the United States, expected to have resulted in 16o, 390 deaths in 2007.

Lung cancer will account for 29 percent of all cancer deaths.

Often slow to develop, its symptoms can go undetected for as long as 10 to 20 years.

Although lung cancer death rates are declining significantly for men, they are on the rise for women.

Prevention

Tobacco use is related to one-third of all cancer and 80 percent of all lung cancer. The best way to prevent lung cancer is not to smoke. If you already smoke, you should try to quit.

The longer you use tobacco, the greater your risk becomes. Research shows that the chances of developing lung cancer decrease once you quit and continue to abstain from tobacco for a long period of time.

You should also avoid breathing in other people's smoke. Nonsmokers exposed to secondhand smoke are at an increased risk for developing lung cancer. A nonsmoker living with a smoker has a 25 percent increased risk for lung cancer.

Never expose children to secondhand smoke. Prolonged exposure can interfere with normal lung development and increase their risk of developing respiratory illnesses such as asthma.

In the workplace, follow work and safety guidelines to reduce your exposure to hazardous chemicals and second-hand smoke.

A good diet with lots of fruits and vegetables may also help prevent lung cancer.

Risks

Cigarette smoking is by far the the leading risk factor in the development of lung cancer. Over 80 percent of lung cancers are caused by smoking. If a person quits smoking before lung cancer develops, the lung tissue slowly returns to normal. Quitting smoking at any age lowers the risk of lung cancer. Smoking low tar cigarettes does not reduce the risk of lung cancer.

Other risk factors include:

• Prolonged exposure to second-hand smoke
• Occupations with exposure to hazardous agent such as arsenic, radon, gasoline, diesel exhaust, chloride, uranium, vinyl and asbestos
• Exposure to chemical products
• Radiation exposure
• Exposure to air pollution
• Tuberculosis
• Personal and family history: If you have had lung cancer, you have a higher risk of getting another lung cancer. Brothers, sisters, and children of people who have had lung cancer may have a slightly higher risk themselves.

Symptoms

A person is usually diagnosed with lung cancer after the growing tumor causes symptoms to appear. At this stage, the cancer cannot be treated as easily, showing why practicing prevention through a healthy lifestyle is so important.

Symptoms that could be signs of lung cancer include:

1. A persistent cough (the most common symptom)
2. Constant chest pain
3. Shortness of breath
4. Wheezing
5. Hoarseness
6. Recurring pneumonia or bronchitis
7. Coughing up blood
8. Unusual or unexplained fatigue
9. Swelling and redness of the neck or face
10. Loss of appetite and loss of weight
11. When lung cancer spreads to distant organs, it may cause:
12. Bone pain
13. Weakness or numbness of the arms or legs
14. Dizziness or seizure
15. Yellow coloring of the skin and eyes (jaundice)
16. Masses near the surface of the body, caused by cancer spreading to the skin or to lymph nodes in the neck or above the collarbone

Regardless of your age, if any of these symptoms lasts longer than two weeks, immediately schedule an appointment with your health care provider.

Early Detection

Lung cancer is difficult to detect at an early stage, because symptoms do not appear until the disease has advanced. That is why prevention – particularly not smoking – is so important.

Chest x-rays are typically performed in addition to a physical exam to diagnose lung cancer. Analysis of sputum cells (spit) that is coughed up from the lungs and checked for cancer cells or a fiber optic examination of bronchial passages may also be done to assist in a diagnosis.

A spiral CT scan (spiral computerized tomography (CT) scan) is a painless procedure that produces three-dimensional, cross-sectional images of the lung. It is being investigated as a lung cancer early detection tool. Unlike conventional chest x-ray – used to diagnose lung cancer today, the CT scan can visualize much smaller growths (nodules) that may be an early tumor, as well as show changes in lung tissue that may lead to cancer.

As the result of recent research, the spiral CT is now recommended as a screening tool for smokers and former smokers. Continued research now underway is helping to clarify whether spiral CT scan can help increase survival for these high risk patients.

Other new tests for molecular markers (genetic changes that may occur before cancer develops or when it is in its early stages) in sputum may detect lung cancer earlier than traditional tests. Researchers are currently evaluating the effectiveness of these tests for screening people without symptoms of lung cancer.

Treatment

Once lung cancer is diagnosed, more tests will determine the type and stage of the cancer – whether it is confined to the lungs or if it has spread to other parts of the body. Non small cell lung cancer is staged from Stage 0 (carcinoma in situ) through Stage IV (cancer has spread to other parts of the body or to another lobe of the lung). Small cell lung cancer is classified as limited stage or extensive stage small cell lung cancer.

Surgery is most often performed for non-small cell lung cancer. Surgery will remove the tumor and some of the lung around the tumor. When part of the lobe of a lung is removed the procedure is called a wedge resection. A lobectomy removes the whole lobe and a pneumonectomy removes the entire lung. If the cancer has spread to nearby tissue or lymph nodes surgery may be followed by radiation therapy alone or in combination with chemotherapy. Sometimes radiation therapy is given alone. When non-small cell lung cancer has spread to other parts of the body or the other lobe of the lung, radiation may be used to shrink the tumor and relieve symptoms. Then chemotherapy is given to some patients. Chemotherapy is the administration of anti-cancer drugs through the mouth, by needle in a muscle or by placing the placing the drug directly into an organ — this is called regional chemotherapy and may be used in some patients.

Sometimes radiation therapy uses external beams of x-rays to kill cancer cells. In other instances, internal radiation is used in which radioactive material is inserted into or near the cancer through needles or wires. Some patients may receive laser therapy in which a laser beam of intense light is used to kill cancer cells. Surgery, radiation, chemotherapy and laser therapy may be used in various combinations.

Small cell lung cancer is treated by surgical removal of the lung where the cancer is found and the nearby lymph nodes. If cancer is found in both lungs, surgery is not often used. Laser therapy may be used to kill cancer cells as well. Chemotherapy is given in combination with radiation therapy to the organ affected such as the brain, spine or bone. A combination of drugs may also be given along with radiation.

New treatments for non-small cell lung cancer are being studied and include phytodynamic therapy that uses light to activate certain drugs and biologic therapy that boosts patients own immune systems.

LUNG CANCER

What is Lung Cancer?

Most lung cancer is caused by tobacco use. Lung cancer accounts for the most cancer-related deaths in both men and women. An estimated 231,380 new cases are expected in 2007.

Lung cancer often takes many years to develop. First, there may be areas of pre-cancerous changes in the lung. These changes are not masses or tumors. They can't be seen on an X-ray and they don't cause symptoms. As these pre-cancerous areas change and mutate to become cancer, they create chemicals that cause new blood vessels to form nearby. These new blood vessels nourish the cancer cells and allow a tumor to form. Finally, the tumor becomes large enough to be seen on an X-ray.

Once lung cancer occurs, cancer cells can break away and spread to other parts of the body in a process called metastasis. Lung cancer is a life-threatening disease because it often spreads in this way before it is found.

Types of Lung Cancer

There are different types of lung cancers that are characterized by the cells that make up the tumors. One quarter of all lung cancers are called small-cell lung cancers. This type of lung cancer grows the fastest and quickly spreads to other organs.

Non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the most common type of lung cancer. There are three kinds of NSCLC:

Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common type of lung cancer in men. It spreads at a slower rate than other lung cancers, and often begins in the bronchial tubes.

Adenocarcinoma is the most common type of lung cancer in women and in people who have never smoked. It usually begins along the outer edges of the lungs, under the lining of the bronchi.

Large cell carcinomas are a group of cancer with large abnormal looking cells. These tumors usually begin along the outer edges of the lung.

Statistics

About 213,380 Americans are estimated to be diagnosed with lung cancer in 2007.

Lung cancer is the number-one cancer-killer in the United States, expected to have resulted in 16o, 390 deaths in 2007.

Lung cancer will account for 29 percent of all cancer deaths.

Often slow to develop, its symptoms can go undetected for as long as 10 to 20 years.

Although lung cancer death rates are declining significantly for men, they are on the rise for women.

Prevention

Tobacco use is related to one-third of all cancer and 80 percent of all lung cancer. The best way to prevent lung cancer is not to smoke. If you already smoke, you should try to quit.

The longer you use tobacco, the greater your risk becomes. Research shows that the chances of developing lung cancer decrease once you quit and continue to abstain from tobacco for a long period of time.

You should also avoid breathing in other people's smoke. Nonsmokers exposed to secondhand smoke are at an increased risk for developing lung cancer. A nonsmoker living with a smoker has a 25 percent increased risk for lung cancer.

Never expose children to secondhand smoke. Prolonged exposure can interfere with normal lung development and increase their risk of developing respiratory illnesses such as asthma.

In the workplace, follow work and safety guidelines to reduce your exposure to hazardous chemicals and second-hand smoke.

A good diet with lots of fruits and vegetables may also help prevent lung cancer.

Risks

Cigarette smoking is by far the the leading risk factor in the development of lung cancer. Over 80 percent of lung cancers are caused by smoking. If a person quits smoking before lung cancer develops, the lung tissue slowly returns to normal. Quitting smoking at any age lowers the risk of lung cancer. Smoking low tar cigarettes does not reduce the risk of lung cancer.

Other risk factors include:

• Prolonged exposure to second-hand smoke
• Occupations with exposure to hazardous agent such as arsenic, radon, gasoline, diesel exhaust, chloride, uranium, vinyl and asbestos
• Exposure to chemical products
• Radiation exposure
• Exposure to air pollution
• Tuberculosis
• Personal and family history: If you have had lung cancer, you have a higher risk of getting another lung cancer. Brothers, sisters, and children of people who have had lung cancer may have a slightly higher risk themselves.

Symptoms

A person is usually diagnosed with lung cancer after the growing tumor causes symptoms to appear. At this stage, the cancer cannot be treated as easily, showing why practicing prevention through a healthy lifestyle is so important.

Symptoms that could be signs of lung cancer include:

1. A persistent cough (the most common symptom)
2. Constant chest pain
3. Shortness of breath
4. Wheezing
5. Hoarseness
6. Recurring pneumonia or bronchitis
7. Coughing up blood
8. Unusual or unexplained fatigue
9. Swelling and redness of the neck or face
10. Loss of appetite and loss of weight
11. When lung cancer spreads to distant organs, it may cause:
12. Bone pain
13. Weakness or numbness of the arms or legs
14. Dizziness or seizure
15. Yellow coloring of the skin and eyes (jaundice)
16. Masses near the surface of the body, caused by cancer spreading to the skin or to lymph nodes in the neck or above the collarbone

Regardless of your age, if any of these symptoms lasts longer than two weeks, immediately schedule an appointment with your health care provider.

Early Detection

Lung cancer is difficult to detect at an early stage, because symptoms do not appear until the disease has advanced. That is why prevention – particularly not smoking – is so important.

Chest x-rays are typically performed in addition to a physical exam to diagnose lung cancer. Analysis of sputum cells (spit) that is coughed up from the lungs and checked for cancer cells or a fiber optic examination of bronchial passages may also be done to assist in a diagnosis.

A spiral CT scan (spiral computerized tomography (CT) scan) is a painless procedure that produces three-dimensional, cross-sectional images of the lung. It is being investigated as a lung cancer early detection tool. Unlike conventional chest x-ray – used to diagnose lung cancer today, the CT scan can visualize much smaller growths (nodules) that may be an early tumor, as well as show changes in lung tissue that may lead to cancer.

As the result of recent research, the spiral CT is now recommended as a screening tool for smokers and former smokers. Continued research now underway is helping to clarify whether spiral CT scan can help increase survival for these high risk patients.

Other new tests for molecular markers (genetic changes that may occur before cancer develops or when it is in its early stages) in sputum may detect lung cancer earlier than traditional tests. Researchers are currently evaluating the effectiveness of these tests for screening people without symptoms of lung cancer.

Treatment

Once lung cancer is diagnosed, more tests will determine the type and stage of the cancer – whether it is confined to the lungs or if it has spread to other parts of the body. Non small cell lung cancer is staged from Stage 0 (carcinoma in situ) through Stage IV (cancer has spread to other parts of the body or to another lobe of the lung). Small cell lung cancer is classified as limited stage or extensive stage small cell lung cancer.

Surgery is most often performed for non-small cell lung cancer. Surgery will remove the tumor and some of the lung around the tumor. When part of the lobe of a lung is removed the procedure is called a wedge resection. A lobectomy removes the whole lobe and a pneumonectomy removes the entire lung. If the cancer has spread to nearby tissue or lymph nodes surgery may be followed by radiation therapy alone or in combination with chemotherapy. Sometimes radiation therapy is given alone. When non-small cell lung cancer has spread to other parts of the body or the other lobe of the lung, radiation may be used to shrink the tumor and relieve symptoms. Then chemotherapy is given to some patients. Chemotherapy is the administration of anti-cancer drugs through the mouth, by needle in a muscle or by placing the placing the drug directly into an organ — this is called regional chemotherapy and may be used in some patients.

Sometimes radiation therapy uses external beams of x-rays to kill cancer cells. In other instances, internal radiation is used in which radioactive material is inserted into or near the cancer through needles or wires. Some patients may receive laser therapy in which a laser beam of intense light is used to kill cancer cells. Surgery, radiation, chemotherapy and laser therapy may be used in various combinations.

Small cell lung cancer is treated by surgical removal of the lung where the cancer is found and the nearby lymph nodes. If cancer is found in both lungs, surgery is not often used. Laser therapy may be used to kill cancer cells as well. Chemotherapy is given in combination with radiation therapy to the organ affected such as the brain, spine or bone. A combination of drugs may also be given along with radiation.

New treatments for non-small cell lung cancer are being studied and include phytodynamic therapy that uses light to activate certain drugs and biologic therapy that boosts patients own immune systems.